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Foreign trade policy --- Europe --- AA / International- internationaal --- EUR / Europe - Europa --- 338.731 --- Aardolie. Aardolieschok. --- Petroleum industry and trade --- Petroleum refineries --- Aardolie. Aardolieschok

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Analysis of household expenditure surveys since 2008 in 22 Sub-Saharan African countries shows that one-third of all people use electricity. As expected, users are disproportionately urban and rich. In communities with access to electricity, lack of affordability is the greatest barrier to household connection. Lifeline rates enabling the poor to use grid electricity vary in availability, with six countries allowing 30 kilowatt-hours or less of electricity usage a month at low prices. Affordability challenges are aggravated by sharing of meters by several households -- denying them access to lifeline rates -- and high connection costs in many countries, made worse by demands from utility staff for bribes in some countries. Collection of detailed information on residential schedules enabled calculation of the percentage of total household expenditures needed for electricity at the subsistence and other levels. Affordability varied across countries, with grid electricity even at the subsistence level being out of reach for the poor in half the countries and even more so once connection charges are considered. Examination of the gender of the head of household shows that female-headed households are not disadvantaged in electricity use once income and the place of residence (urban or rural) are taken into account. However, female-headed households tend to be poorer, making it all the more important to focus on helping the poor for the goal of achieving universal access. Installing individual meters and subsidizing installation, encouraging prepaid metering so as to avoid disconnection and reconnection charges, reformulating lifeline blocks and rates as appropriate, and stamping out corruption to eliminate bribe-taking can all help the poor.

Electrification.

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338 (41) --- Economische situatie. Economische structuur van bepaalde landen en gebieden. Economische geografie. Economische produktie.economische produkten. Economische diensten--Verenigd Koninkrijk van Groot-Brittannië en Noord-Ierland --- -338.22 --- 338 (41) Economische situatie. Economische structuur van bepaalde landen en gebieden. Economische geografie. Economische produktie.economische produkten. Economische diensten--Verenigd Koninkrijk van Groot-Brittannië en Noord-Ierland --- -Great Britain --- 330.00 --- 331.30 --- 331.31 --- GB / United Kingdom - Verenigd Koninkrijk - Royaume Uni --- 338.22 --- 338.22 Economische organisatieleer. Economisch beleid. Economische politiek --- Economische organisatieleer. Economisch beleid. Economische politiek --- Economische en sociale theorieën: algemeenheden --- Economische toestand --- Economisch beleid --- Great Britain --- Economic conditions --- Economic policy --- Great Britain - Economic conditions - 1964-1979 --- Great Britain - Economic policy - 1964-1979

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The Philippines power sector underwent a substantial and largely complete reform process. Following a severe shortage of supply in the late 1980s and the Asian Financial crisis of 1997, which made the dollar-denominated debt of the National Power Corporation extremely burdensome, the Electric Power Industry Reform Act was passed in 2001. This was intended to improve the quality of service and reduce power tariffs via the introduction of private participation and competition at the wholesale and retail levels. Although the implementation of the full reform program took longer than originally expected, the unwavering support given to the reform agenda by successive presidents of the country ensured that the planned steps had all been completed by 2013. At that time, retail competition and open access for consumers in Luzon and Visayas of more than one megawatt were introduced. The reform process was not impeded by complications that would have arisen if consumer subsidies had been endemic, but retail prices are even higher than might have been expected in the absence of subsidies, due to domestic taxation and the presence of some inefficiencies that have not yet been eliminated by the onset of competition.

De Facto Governments --- Democratic Government --- Electric Utility --- Electricity Pricing --- Energy Access --- Energy and Environment --- Energy Demand --- Energy Policies and Economics --- Energy Privatization --- Energy Sector Regulation --- Governance --- Power and Energy Conversion --- Power Generation --- Power Sector Reform --- Private Sector Development --- Privatization --- Public Sector Development --- Regulation --- State-Owned Enterprise

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Household surveys in Guatemala, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka were analyzed using a two-stage Heckman model to examine the factors influencing the decision to use liquefied petroleum gas (stage 1) and, among users, the quantity consumed per person (stage 2). In the first stage, liquefied petroleum gas selection in all six countries increased with household expenditure and the highest level of education attained by female and male household members. Electricity connection increased, and engagement in agriculture and increasing household size decreased, liquefied petroleum gas selection in five countries; urban residence increased selection in four countries; and rising firewood and kerosene prices increased selection in three countries each. In the second stage, the quantity of liquefied petroleum gas consumed increased with rising household expenditure and decreasing price of liquefied petroleum gas in every country. Urban residence increased and engagement in agriculture decreased liquefied petroleum gas consumption. Surveys in Albania, Brazil, Mexico, and Peru, which did not report quantities, were also examined by calculating quantities using national average prices. Although fuel prices faced by individual households could not be tested, the findings largely supported those from the first six countries. Once the education levels of men and women were separately accounted for, the gender of the head of household was not statistically significant in most cases across the ten countries. Where it was significant (five equations), the sign of the coefficient was positive for men, possibly suggesting that female-headed households are burdened with unmeasured economic disadvantages, making less cash available for purchasing liquefied petroleum gas.

Biomass --- Cooking --- Education --- Energy --- Energy and Environment --- Energy Conservation & Efficiency --- Energy Poverty --- Energy Production and Transportation --- Fuel --- Gender --- Heckman --- Household Surveys --- Liquefied Petroleum Gas --- LPG --- Markets and Market Access --- Renewable Energy